VIETNAM. The Socialist Republic of Vietnam consists of the former Democratic Republic of
Vietnam (North Vietnam) and the former Republic of Vietnam (South Vietnam). The division
of the country resulted from the defeat of the French by Communist-inspired nationalists
in 1954. A prolonged civil war resulted in a victory for the Communist north, and
reunification occurred in mid-1976.
Physical Setting
Vietnam has an area of 127,207 square miles (329,465 square kilometers) and is located
in Southeast Asia. The country has a coastline of nearly 1,440 miles (2,317 kilometers),
much of which fronts on the South China Sea. Border countries are China, Cambodia, and
Laos. The latter two countries, along with Vietnam, constituted the former French
Indochina.
Northern Vietnam is quite mountainous, especially the extreme north and northwest. The
Red River (Song Hong), which originates in China's Yunnan Province, is the principal
river of the north and is about 725 miles (1,167 kilometers) in length. The major lowland
area is a delta that has been created by deposits from the Red River as it enters the
Gulf of Tonkin. The river passes through the capital city of Hanoi. For more than 2,000
years the Tonkin Lowland, considered the cradle of Vietnamese civilization, has been the
scene of considerable water control efforts in the form of canals and dikes.
The southernmost portion of the country is dominated by another lowland that is much
more extensive than that in the north. This lowland has essentially been created by the
Mekong River (Song Cuu Long) and its various tributaries. Just north of Ho Chi Minh City
(formerly Saigon) the landscape becomes more varied and rolling with forested hills.
The central portion of Vietnam varies in width but is only 35 miles (56 kilometers) at
its narrowest point. This region has only a narrow coastal strip in contrast to the rest
of the coastline, where wider lowlands exist.
The westernmost portion of the area is dominated by the Annamese, or Annamite,
Cordillera, a major mountain chain, which forms the spine of the country from north to
south. Along with the two major rivers, there are many shorter rivers that drain the
highlands and flow eastward to the South China Sea. The country also has six island
groups, 14 separate mountain ranges, and three large lakes.
The climate of Vietnam is largely tropical, though the north may be distinguished as
subtropical. Differences in humidity, rainfall, and temperature are caused largely by
changes in elevation. The north has a hot and humid five-month-long wet season lasting
from May through September. The remainder of the year is relatively warm and rainfree,
but humid. A prolonged period of fog, cloudiness, and drizzle occurs from December
through April in the central zone and coastal lowlands. The south is characterized by a
monsoon-type climate dominated by a changing wind pattern that brings rainfall. The rainy
period is shorter than in the north.
In the north maximum rainfall occurs in July and August, while in the south these
peaks are in June and September. Average rainfall at Hanoi is 72 inches (183 centimeters)
per year, at Hue 117 inches (297 centimeters), and at Ho Chi Minh City 81 inches (206
centimeters). In the higher elevations of the Annamese mountain chain, rainfall can
exceed 175 inches (445 centimeters). The region is subject to typhoons, which may occur
from July through November. Daily temperatures in the south range between 64 and 92 F
(18 and 33 C), while in the north the climate is considerably cooler. Average summer
temperatures are approximately 82 F (28 C) with the winter average at 63 F (17 C).
People and Culture
The population of Vietnam in the early 1990s was estimated at more than 67 million.
Birth- and death rates respectively were 31 and 9 per thousand. The natural rate of
increase per year is 2.3 percent. If this rate continued, the population of the country
would double within 30 years. Family planning services, including contraception and
abortion, are widely available. A major goal is to reduce the rate of population growth
to less than 2 percent per year. The infant mortality rate of 69 per 1,000 live births is
close to that of the Philippines but higher than that of Malaysia. The average life
expectancy is 60 years.
Given the contrasting landforms of the country, the distribution of the population is
very uneven. Major concentrations are found in the Red and Mekong river deltas, where
densities may exceed 2,000 persons per square mile (772 per square kilometer). The
average density, however, is much lower 488 persons per square mile (188 per square
kilometer).
A major element of current development planning is the forced relocation of more than
10 million Vietnamese into new economic zones that are scattered throughout the country.
Earlier movements of people occurred largely in response to war activity, with refugees
migrating from north to south and subsequently into urban areas. In the mid-1970s there
also was an evacuation effort carried out by the United States that took more than
135,000 Vietnamese to that country. Movement out of Vietnam in small fishing vessels
continues. These migrants seek destinations largely in other Southeast Asian countries.
As a result of a United Nations effort, a coordinated orderly departure program has
been in place since 1980. Ethnic Chinese and children of American
and Asian (Amerasian) descent are conspicuous in this program because they are the
objects of discrimination if they remain in Vietnam. Illegal emigration continues but at
a reduced rate, as the penalty when caught is severe. Property confiscation and hard
labor and reeducation camps are common punishments.
The urban population in Vietnam is 19 percent of the total, comparable to that of
Thailand and Myanmar. The largest cities are Ho Chi Minh City in southern Vietnam and
Hanoi in the north. Other large cities are Haiphong (the major port for Hanoi), Da Nang,
Bien Hoa, Can Tho, Nha Trang, Qui Nhon, Hue, and Cam Ranh. The latter was for many years
the site of the Soviet naval fleet, which occupied the facility built by the United
States during the Vietnam War.
The Vietnamese are descended from both Chinese and Thai peoples. Originating in
southern China, the Vietnamese people pushed southward over the course of several hundred
years to occupy much of the current area of Vietnam. A strong sense of national identity
was produced as a result of the struggle for political independence from China.
Vietnamese culture, however, still reflects the strong influence of Chinese civilization.
Nearly 100 years of French rule instilled many European cultural traits as well. The
Vietnamese, however, continue to maintain their own culture through such customs as
attaching great importance to the family and observing rites honoring their ancestors.
Although 90 percent of the population is Vietnamese, there are several significant
minorities. The largest of these is the Chinese, who number about 4.1 million and
constitute nearly 7 percent of the total population. The Chinese minority is concentrated
largely in urban areas, especially the Cholon section of Ho Chi Minh City. The Chinese
have long played major roles in the Vietnamese economy, being active in rice trade and
milling, real estate, banking, shopkeeping, stevedoring, and mining.
Another minority group, known collectively as Montagnards, is made up of two main
ethnic-linquistic groups Malayo-Polynesian and Mon-Khmer. More than 25 tribes of various
cultures and dialects are spread throughout the hill areas of the country. Still another
minority group is the Khmer, or Cambodians. These people, perhaps numbering 1 million,
are concentrated in the southern provinces near the Cambodian border and at the delta of
the Mekong River. Most of them are farmers.
Government policy appears to be directed toward the assimilation of minorities into
the mainstream culture. There are attempts to place ethnic Vietnamese among minority
peoples in order to strengthen control. A further emphasis is the encouragement of
minorities to emigrate, as noted above. Ethnic Chinese are often denied official
employment and educational opportunities.
The three traditional religions are Buddhism, Taoism, and Confucianism. Buddhism was
brought into Vietnam from China in the 2nd century AD and has the largest number of
followers. About 32 million Vietnamese follow Buddhism, and most of these followers are
Mahayana Buddhists . Both Mahayana and Theravada Buddhism are practiced. Most of
Vietnam's Theravada Buddhists are Khmer Krom. They number about 900,000 and live in
southern and southwestern Vietnam. It is this group that has supplied the Vietnamese army
in Cambodia with interpreters and staff for its government there. Confucianism serves as
a means of forming social patterns. Rules for social interaction, the cult of ancestor
worship, and the male-dominated family structure are by-products of the religion. Roman
Catholicism was introduced into Vietnam in the 16th century and flourished especially
under the French. There are about 2 million followers of the religion today.
The government tolerates religion and permits religious services but restricts
conversion activities and growth in general. Reports indicate that the Roman Catholic
church is a special target for control, and as a result church membership has begun to
dwindle. Since 1975 government authorities have attempted to suppress and intimidate the
Mahayana Buddhist leaders. Temples have been closed, and monks have been forced into
reeducation camps.
The official language of the country is Vietnamese. It is monosyllabic and belongs to
the Mon-Khmer family. There is considerable borrowing from Chinese in the vocabulary. Of
the numerous other languages spoken, Thai, Sino-Tibetan and Miao-Yao are the most
widespread. Once widely spoken, French has fallen from use. Given the American
intervention in Vietnamese affairs, English is not encouraged. Russian is of some
importance because of the history of support and economic cooperation that Vietnam had
with the Soviet Union.
Education in Vietnam is universal and compulsory for children ages 6 to 11. The
educational system has been altered somewhat since reunification. This basically involves
the use of new texts in the south to conform to those in the north. In addition many
teachers in the south have undergone political indoctrination programs. Private schools
are now under government control. The school year extends from September to May. Primary
and secondary education accounts for more than 12,600 schools, 566,000 teachers, and 15.8
million students. There were more than 80 institutions of higher learning with a total
enrollment of 160,000 in the mid-1980s.
Health services and facilities are being refurbished and expanded to make up for
wartime destruction. Yet expenditures on health services are grossly inadequate. It is
estimated that only 15 percent of the population has access to safe water. The government
appears to have eliminated such major diseases as tuberculosis, smallpox, malaria,
leprosy, and bubonic plague. In the early 1980s there were approximately 11,000 hospitals
and 14,000 physicians in the country.
Vietnamese cooking has been influenced by Chinese, French, and Malay food preparation.
The Vietnamese cuisine in upper-class homes has a rich sophistication that rivals Chinese
and Thai cooking. A fermented fish sauce called nuoc mam is used in many prepared dishes.
Rice, the staple food, is usually eaten with cooked leafy green vegetables or in soup.
Rice is grown wherever possible in irrigated rice fields. Rice is supplemented by corn,
sweet potatoes, and cassavas. Many people raise fruits and vegetables. Meat is only
consumed at festivals or sacrifices. Fresh fish and dried fish, however, are readily
available. Red chili is used in most meals in some form, and occasionally boiled maize is
eaten as a snack. Agriculture in the south-central coastal plain and on the Cambodian
border has been historically dominated by market gardening rather than wet rice
agriculture.
Economy
Vietnam is viewed by the World Bank as one of 37 low-income countries. It has a
centrally planned economy in which the dominant sector is public. Very few current
statistics are available because no financial or production information is reported to
outside agencies. Gross national product was estimated for 1982 at 9 billion dollars,
with a per capita income of 175 dollars. The economy has evolved in phases that have
attempted to eliminate capitalism, elevate state control and planning, and deal with
financial indebtedness and weak resources. Efforts to redistribute land in the north were
coupled with an attempt to implement a cooperative movement. Cooperative land has been
contracted to families or production teams to meet production targets. Excess production
above a quota may be sold by peasants on the open market. Individual land ownership is
still widespread in the south. Similarly, private enterprise in the south has only
gradually changed and continues to play a significant role.
The economy is guided by a five-year development plan that corresponded to the Soviet
and Eastern European planning cycle. During the 1970's emphasis moved from heavy industry
to agriculture and light industry in order to improve material living standards within
Vietnam as well as develop exports to earn foreign exchange. The south was viewed as the
main food basket and supplier for the nation as well as a producer of light industrial
goods.
The plan was built on the assumption of United States aid after normalization of ties.
However, contrary to expectations, little aid from the United States was delivered, and
foreign aid in general was reduced in reaction to Vietnam's invasion of Kampuchea
(Cambodia). Conflict with China further drained resources. It is estimated that more than
40 percent of the country's budget is being spent on defense.
A new plan not yet implemented emphasizes small practical projects in agriculture,
consumer goods, energy, and communications. The new domestic economic policy, which was
announced in early 1988, in effect abandoned centralized planning in favor of managerial
decision making at the factory level in state enterprises. Worker incentives, quality
control, shareholding, an expanded banking industry, and wage scales linked to
productivity were part of this sweeping reform.
In 1976 Vietnam joined the International Monetary Fund, World Bank, and Asian
Development Bank, but no requests for loans have been honored since 1978. Most aid has
come from the United Nations Development Program, France, Japan, and the Scandinavian
countries. The Soviet Union assisted with major development projects during the 1970s and
1980s.
Agriculture the mainstay of the economy employs 60 percent of the labor force. It
accounts for an estimated 45 percent of the gross domestic product. Only 23 percent of
the total land area is cultivated. The deltas of the Red and Mekong rivers, as well as
other lowland areas, are the prime rice-growing regions. Multiple cropping is common in
the north, accomplished through an extensive system of irrigation. Single cropping is the
rule in the south because of dry conditions half of each year and an inadequate water
supply. High-yielding varieties of rice are commonly used. Elsewhere such dry crops as
corn, sweet potatoes, cassavas, and pulse plants are grown.
Before 1980 chronic food shortages consistently caused widespread malnutrition.
Natural disasters as well as collectivist policies were responsible for the food
deficits. Food production improved as a result of production contracts and increased
prices. Mechanization of agriculture is thwarted by the lack of fuel, so the raising of
draft animals is encouraged. In the absence of adequate local fertilizer production,
there is increased use of green and natural fertilizers in rice terraces. Commercial
forest production was affected by the war, but more than 800 million cubic feet (22.7
million cubic meters) of valuable hardwoods were harvested in 1982.
There is considerable potential for the fishing industry in the rich offshore fishing
grounds. A variety of fish species are caught in addition to prawns, lobsters, and
crayfish. The collective model has been employed in this industry and has adversely
affected the annual catch and fishermen's incomes. Refugee movements have gradually
removed vessels from the fishing fleet, and this, too, has hurt the industry.
The heavy industrial base of Vietnam is concentrated in the north. Productive capacity
rebounded after the destruction of the war period. Machine tools, iron and steel, and
fertilizer operations contribute to the industrial output. Light manufacturing and
processed agricultural products are focused in the south. Industrial production is
difficult to monitor, but apparently growth rates have been stronger in locally run and
handicraft industries and weaker in large-scale industries. Consumer industries too often
require imported components or materials that are difficult to obtain because of
inadequate foreign exchange. Emigration has seriously affected the industrial sector, as
management expertise is conspicuously uneven. Vietnamese industry continues to be
troubled by power shortages.
The north is endowed with mineral resources that include coal, tin, chrome, and
phosphate. The coal mines of Hong-Quong are quite large and produced more than 800,000
tons of coal in 1982.
The railway system includes more than 1,700 miles (2,700 kilometers) of track. Since
1976 a trans-Vietnam railway links the two largest cities. There are more than 22,500
miles (36,200 kilometers) of roads, of which only 15 percent are paved. Human-powered
three-wheel vehicles are more common than motorized vehicles. Major ports are at
Haiphong, Ho Chi Minh City, Nha Trang, Da Nang, Qui Nhon, and Hon Gai. Vietnam's national
airline, Hang Khong Vietnam, has an old fleet of DC-4 aircraft along with some newer
aircraft that operate primarily on domestic routes.
Telephones are a rare luxury in Vietnam. In the late 1980s only 116,000 were in
operation.
Trade figures for 1984 show that imports far exceeded exports: 596 million dollars and
254 million dollars, respectively. Manufactured goods, handicrafts, and agricultural
products were the major export goods and were sold principally to Japan, Hong Kong, the
Soviet Union, and Singapore. Imported goods consisted of fuels, raw materials, machinery,
and food products. Some 60 percent of these came from the Soviet Union, Japan, India,
Singapore, and Hong Kong.
History
In the 2nd century BC the northern area of Vietnam and part of southern China were
conquered by the army representing the Han Dynasty of China. Chinese rule lasted for more
than 1,000 years until AD 939, when the Vietnamese managed to throw off their conquerors.
A southward expansion continued over the following 800 years, reaching as far as the Gulf
of Siam (now the Gulf of Thailand). Internal strife, however, produced a struggle that
lasted more than two centuries. Essentially Vietnam was divided near the 17th parallel
with two states Tonkin in the north and Cochinchina in the south. Following a civil war
the country was reunited briefly in 1802.
Political weakness permitted French intervention and expansion. Cochinchina became a
French colony in 1867, and Annam and Tonkin became French protectorates in 1883. Later
all three were merged with Laos and Cambodia to form French Indochina. Throughout the
period of French rule, strong nationalist and revolutionary movements were present.
During World War II the French yielded Indochina to Japan. After the Japanese surrender
in 1945, a nationalist coalition known as the Viet Minh, led by Ho Chi Minh, proclaimed
the Democratic Republic of Vietnam
. French resistance to the Viet Minh led to a war that lasted eight years. After a
crucial battle at Dienbienphu, a cease-fire agreement was signed in 1954. The cease-fire
provided for a partitioned Vietnam, the south becoming the Republic of Vietnam under Ngo
Dinh Diem. This anti-Communist southern regime was opposed by a growing resistance
movement that became known as the Viet Cong.
Just prior to the overthrow of Diem in the south, the United States joined the
conflict between north and south. Ground forces were committed, and bombing was carried
out against the north from 1965 to 1968. Peace negotiations began between the Hanoi
government and the United States in 1969; the Paris accord was signed on Jan. 27, 1973.
More than 47,000 American troops were killed before the last forces departed in March
1973. Two years later the National Liberation Front forces of the north pushed southward
and captured Saigon. The three-decade war produced an estimated toll of 2 million
Vietnamese dead with another 4 million wounded. More than half of the population were
left homeless, and large areas of cultivated land and infrastructure were
devastated.Vietnam was admitted to the United Nations in 1977. Close cooperation has
existed with the Soviet Union, and a quest for authority over Laos and Cambodia has been
maintained. Some 50,000 to 70,000 Vietnamese troops are permanently based in Laos.
Cambodian resistance to Vietnamese demands led to full-scale warfare and Vietnamese
occupation of the country. This conquest has made it necessary for Vietnam to deploy
troops on the Chinese and Thai borders in addition to maintaining armies of occupation in
both Cambodia and Laos.
Governmental ties and commercial relations have been established with all members of
the Association of Southeast Asian Nations (ASEAN). Vietnam also has close ties to India.
More significant is the restoration of relations with France. The settlement of many
issues, including compensation for the seizure of French property, opened the way for
French development aid. Vietnam and the United States have no diplomatic relations,
though discussions continue on the subject of American military personnel missing in
action. This matter and the occupation of Cambodia hinder the resumption of any official
relationship. In 1989 Vietnam announced that it would withdraw its remaining troops from
Cambodia by the fall.
By 1992 Vietnam had altered its domestic and foreign policies significantly. In
response to the fall of Communism in Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union, it began to
modify its economic policies. No further assistance would be forthcoming from its old
ally the Soviet Union, since that nation was in the process of disintegration. The
leaders of Vietnam sought foreign investment to help their economy. Vietnamese forces did
pull out of Cambodia, and a Cambodian peace agreement was signed on Oct. 23, 1991.
Relations were renewed with China in mid-1991 after 13 years of hostility. Relations with
the United States also showed signs of improvement in October 1991, when United States
Secretary of State James Baker met with the Vietnamese foreign minister in Paris.
Vietnam Fact Summary
Official Name. Socialist Republic of Vietnam.
Capital. Hanoi.
NATURAL FEATURES
Principal Physical Features. Annamese Cordillera, Mekong River delta, Red River delta,
Tonkin Lowland.
Mountain Ranges. Annamese Cordillera.
Highest Peak. Fan Si Pan, 10,308 feet (3,142 meters).
Major Rivers. Mekong, Red.
PEOPLE
Population (1991 estimate). 67,589,000; 519.6 persons per square mile (200.6 persons per
square kilometer); 20 percent urban, 80 percent rural.
Major Cities (1989 census). Ho Chi Minh City (3,169,135), Hanoi (1,088,862), Haiphong
(456,049), Da Nang (370,670), Long Xuyen (217,171).
Major Religions. Buddhism, Taoism, Confucianism.
Major Language. Vietnamese (official).
Literacy. 94 percent.
Leading Universities. College of Pharmacy, Hanoi; Hanoi University; Technical University
of Hanoi; Technical University of Ho Chi Minh City; University of Ho Chi Minh City.
GOVERNMENT
Form of Government. People's Republic.
Chief of State. President.
Head of Government. Premier.
Legislature. National Assembly; one legislative house of 496 members; four-year terms.
Voting Qualification. Age 18.
Political Divisions. 36 provinces, 3 municipalities, and 1 special zone.
ECONOMY
Chief Agricultural Products. Crops rice, corn, sweet potatoes, cassavas, pulse plants,
sugarcane, cotton, tobacco, yams, peanuts. Fish freshwater fish and seafood.
Chief Mined Products. Coal, tin, chrome, phosphate.
Chief Manufactured Products. Machine tools, iron and steel, fertilizers, processed
agricultural products, handicrafts.
Chief Exports. Manufactured goods, handicrafts, agricultural products, fish and
shellfish.
Chief Imports. Fuels, raw materials, machinery, food products.
Monetary Unit. 1 dong = 10 hao = 100 xu.
BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR VIETNAM
E.B. Fincher The Vietnam War
The World Book Encyclopedia (94 editon)
Stanley Karnow Vietnam: A History
Tim Page Ten Years After: Vietnam Today
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