The Sight of Science
It is a truth universally acknowledged that he whose mind is ahead of his time and above
that of his peers may not be understood by his fellow people and be subject to critisizm
and persecution. Galilei Galileo, Francis Bacon, and Rene Descartes were am
ong the first to break away from the conventional views of their times to find a place
for science in a society and propose the way it should be practiced. All three authors
agree on some points but differe markedly on others. Bacon insists on the importa
nce of experimentation and relative uselessness of senses and experience, while Decartes
thinks them imporatnt for understanding of nature. Galileo stresses the need for
separation of science and religion, while Descartes deems the correctness of the meth
od of scientific thought to be most important. Yet all three writers agree that natural
science should be freed of the grip of theology and human ethics, what sets them apart
from previous generations of scientists and thinkers.
In his Discoveries, Bacon goes at great length to discuss the influence the
prescientfic mode of thinking has had on generations of scientists, and tries to
Descartes asserts that the mathematical method of examining the relationship between
objects and expressing them in concise formulas, applied to the entire realm of
knowledge, permits him to exercise his own reason to the best of his ability. Since
nothin
g in philosophy is certain, it is evident that he must discover his own philosophical
principles.
Galileo's views on science and religion, as seen from his Letter to the Grand Dutchess
Christina are very radical for his times. He suggests that physical sciences must be
separated from theological studies because the goals of the two disicplines are to
tally different: theology is concerned with salvation of the soul, while the sciences are
concerned with understanding of nature. He believes that the clergy apply faith where
ther is none involved -- one cannot undersand nature just by quoting the Script
ure because the nature, a fruit of God's infinite wisdom., defies the simple explanation
men's feeble minds attempt to find in the Bible. To truly understand nature, one has
apply the little of the reason that God has given to him and look "between the li
nes" for the true meaning of the Bible. There are a number interpretations one can find
because the Bible is often general and simplistic; Galileo suggests that the best way to
find the true meaning is to disprove the false conclusions by finding contradi
cions in nature, as determined by accurate experiments rather than fervent meditation. It
is a job of scientists to examine nature and it is the business of theologists to make
sure the Bible agrees with it, for nature is no less a manifestation of God th
an the Holy Bible itself:
"A thing is not forever contrary to the faith until disproved by most certain truth..
When that happens it was not the Holy scripture that ever affirmed it but human ignorance
that ever imagined it." (St. Augustine, De Genesi Ad Literam i, 18,19, p. 206
).
Ultimately, the true faith and physical sciences take two different but parallel pathways
in an attempt to understand God, one by following His canons and the other by exploring
His creations, "by Nature in his works and by doctrine in his word" (183).
Bacon differs somewhat in his view of science and religion. Indeed, he claims that a
true scince must be free of religious tenets where they do not apply: "It is therefore
most wise soberly to render unto faith that are faith's" (317). However, Bacon g
oes further to describe the different uses and abuses of religion that can either further
or impede the adavancement of science. Perhaps most notable of them is the idea of
differentiating true faith from superstition. The true faith is derived from th
e scriptures and applied only to the matters of salvation, while superstition is a
dangerous mixture of philosophy and religion that is applied to the matters where there
is no faith involved, such as politics and natural sciences. Unlike Galileo and Des
cartes, Bacon not only states that religion is not a means of establishing physical
truths because it does not rely on practical experimentation. He also suggests that the
since the Bible was written centuries ago, it lacks the information scientists esta
blished from natural experiments over that perfiod of time; using it to explain the
natural phenomena is nothing more than "seeking thus the dead among the living."
The role of the philosopher in science is different for Bacon and Descartes. Although
both of the thinkers are sceptical of the benefits a philosophy may bring, Bacon denies a
place for it in science, while Descartes believes that it may still be of som
e value. Bacon rejects conventional philosophy mainly because it rests on what he
considers to be a "weak foundation" or logic. Logic has no place in scientific method
because it rests on few, if any, experimentally proven facts and then attempts to extra
polate or deduce further conclusions. Logic is based on applying human mind in effort to
explain nature, while, as Bacon claims, " The subtilty of nature is far beyond that of
sense or of the understanding." Apparently, he believes that nature so beyond t
he grasp of human mind that it goes against all the conclusion that human rationality
prescribes. Therefore he abandons logic as a tool for understanding nature. Instead, he
proposes to conduct science by the method of "true induction" -- proposing a re
asonable conclusion based on a set of thorough and deliberate experiments.
Bacon's inductive reasoning is perhaps the main principle that separates him scientists
of his times. Almost all of contemporary scientits, he tells us, are concerned with
finding basic generalizations common to different scientific phenomena, and then a
ttempt deduce the truth behind them by applying the newly established axioms to more
specific problems. First, the nature is far too complex to be taken superficially; it
defies both understanding of the human mind and perception of human senses. The only
way to make sure that an axiom is true is by conducting a series of apt scientific
trials, and then attempt to combine the experimentally found facts by the powers of
induction to produce a more general statement.
The importance of careful and systematic experiments is perhaps the certral principle
that separates Bacon's understanding of science from the opinions commonly held at his
time. He proposes that science should no longer be practiced by haphazard experim
entation, superstition,
Acknowledging the significance of contributions of the ancient scientists such as
Pythagoras and Aristotles, Bacon disapproves the use of the methodology they prescribe
for several reasons. First, he argues that practice of science should be essentially
aimed at the discovery of truths behind natural phenomena, which is confirmed by
centuries of careful analysis and experimentation rather then on authority, stature, or
popularity of the scientist. Since the world has matured and advanced since the time
s of the ancient thinkers, the contemporary scientists are in a better position to
explain nature.
In searching for a method of arriving at knowledge, Descartes considered ancient logic.
It is apparent that he believes that logic can only be used to com
municate those concepts that are already known and accepted. He rejects geometry and
algebraic analysis because of the restrictions which limit these subjects to figures
alone. Instead, he prefers mathematics since it is controlled and limited by rigid ru
les. Just as the best government is the government which has few laws rigidly
administered, the best method has few rules resolutely followed. On the assumption that a
few rules closely adhered to are superior to lengthy set of precepts, he limits himself
to the following four laws. First, never accept anything as true unless you understand
clearly that it is true. Second, reduce all problems to small component parts and
thoroughly analyze each part by itself. Third, proceed in a orderly and regulated m
anner in analyzing matters step by step, from the simple to the complex order of
knowledge. Fourth, present a thorough enumeration of all possibilities and review
thoroughly to make sure that nothing has been left out. Under constraints of the above m
ethodology, logic can be applied to scientific principles with great success. It follows
then that reason must be nothing more than regulated logic. It is the misdirected or
randomly applied logic what he is against.
Descartes' search for certainty and absolute truth, by using his own reason rather than
the traditions and dogmas of the church, represents a distinct departure for his time.
This position rivals the medieval claim that truth can be found only in religio
us doctrine. The methodology he proposes implies that a man can and perhaps should amass
knowledge on his own. This idea seems to be in contradiction with the doctrine professed
by the catholic church at the time, and Descartes prudently decides not to p
ublish some of his work to avoid religious persecutions that befall the fate of Galileo.
Although the three thinkers disagree markedly both conception and methodology of
science, the message they convey is clear. The progress of science is essential for
advancement of a nation; inventions, both in method and instrumentations, are the only
me
ans by which the human mind can grasp the subtleties of nature. Science must be free of
religious and ethical constraints to achieve the master of humans over nature.
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