Around the turn of this century there was widespread fear throughout Europe, and
especially Ireland, of the consequences of the race mixing that was occurring and the
rise of the lower classes over the aristocracies in control. In Ireland, the Protestants
who were in control of the country began to fear the rise of the Catholics, which
threatened their land and political power. Two Irish authors of the period, Bram Stoker
and William Butler Yeats, offer their views on this "problem" in their works of fiction.
These include Stoker's Dracula and Yeats' On Baile's Strand and The Only Jealousy of
Emer, and these works show the authors' differences in ideas on how to deal with this
threat to civilization. Stoker feels that triumph over this threat can only be achieved
by the defeat of these "demonic" forces through modernity, while Yeats believes that only
by facing the violent and demonic forces and emerging from them could Ireland return to
its ancient and traditional roots and find its place in society.
The vampire was a common metaphor used by many authors in an attempt to portray the
rising lower class and foreign influence as evil and harmful to modern civilization. The
Irish Protestant author Sheridan Le Fanu uses vampires to represent the Catholic uprising
in Ireland in his story Carmilla. Like much of gothic fiction, Carmilla is about the
mixing of blood and the harm that results from it. When vampires strike, they are
tainting the blood of the pure and innocent, causing them to degenerate into undead
savages who will take over and colonize until their race makes up the condition of the
whole world. This was the fear the Protestants had of the rising Catholic class. They
were seen as a lowly people and the fear was that they too would colonize and degenerate
Ireland, and perhaps the rest of Europe, back into a primitive land of savages. This
fear of the breakdown of civilization by dark forces is also what Dracula is about.
In Dracula, Stoker sets up the heroes and victors of the novel as civilized people,
while the foreign villain is ancient and demonic. The book begins with the journal of
Jonathan Harker, a stenographer from London who is sent to Transylvania to close a land
deal with the mysterious Count Dracula.
From what is written in the journal, it is clear that Jonathan is very civilized,
logical and organized. His journal is written in shorthand, which is a sign of modernity
and efficiency. He is a stenographer, which means he is well versed in the legal system,
also a sign of a civilized person. Harker also mentions that he had visited the British
Museum and library in preparation for his trip to this strange land, once again showing
that he is well-organized resourceful. Stoker makes sure to give the reader this
impression of his protagonist as a rational individual because it is he who will later
combat the savage forces with common sense and logic.
Harker's detailed account of his journey into Transylvania shows the contrast between
the West and the East. As he travels farther east, the land becomes more primitive and
wild. As he writes in his journal, "I had to sit in the carriage for more than an hour
before we began to move. It seems to me that the further East you go the more unpunctual
are the trains. What ought they to be in China?" (9). Here the reader sees that as
Jonathan goes east, technology begins to break down a bit and things are a lot less
orderly. Jonathan also finds that he is beginning to lose command over the language, as
he writes, "They were evidently talking of me, and some of the people who were sitting
on the bench outside the door. . . came and listened, and then looked at me, most of them
pityingly. I could hear a lot of words often repeated, queer words, for there were many
nationalities in the crowd" (13). Harker's inability to understand the language is one
of the ways in which he loses control as he travels east. Back in the modern world of
the West, even in foreign countries, Jonathan can understand what is being spoken and
therefore has a sense of control over his situation. In the East, however, he has lost
this control. If he were able to understand what the people are saying, he might realize
the danger that lay ahead of him in Transylvania before it is too late, but because of
the Eastern dialect, he is oblivious to the warnings.
When Jonathan reaches his eastern most destination, Count Dracula's castle, he soon
realizes that he has lost all control of his situation. He writes, "I am not in heart
to describe beauty, for when I had seen the view I explored further; doors, doors, doors
everywhere, and all locked and bolted. In no place save from the windows in the castle
walls is there an available exit. The castle is a veritable prison, and I am a
prisoner!" (39). As the reader can see, the farther he travels east, the more broken
down civilization becomes and the more control he loses over his situation. This idea
that the uncontrolled savagery of mankind lies in the East is all part of the philosophy
that was shared by many Western Europeans at the time.
Stoker makes it clear to the reader that the vampire, or the practice of mixing races,
is demonic and anti-Christian. He does this by offering perversions of Christianity in
the novel. The first of these occurs with the character of Renfield, a fifty-nine year
old madman who comes under the influence of Dracula. The character of Renfield
foreshadows the social disruption and insanity which will accompany Dracula's descent
upon England, or, in other words, modern civilization. Before most of the characters
experience the wrath of Dracula, Renfield begins to act wild and speaks of the arrival of
his lord. This is one of the perversions of Christianity that Stoker employs to show the
demonic nature of the vampire. Dr. Seward notes in his diary, "All he would say was:-
'I don't want to talk to you: you don't count now; the Master is at hand.' The attendant
thinks it is some sudden form sudden form of religious mania which has seized him."
(132). It is here that Renfield acts as a demonic form of John the Baptist. Just as
John the Baptist prepared people for the coming of Christ, Renfield prepares people for
the coming of his lord and master, Dracula.
Another example of a perversion of Christianity is Lucy Westenra. After her blood has
been drained several times by the Count, she finally dies on September 20th. An article
in the Westminster Gazette dated September 25th reads:
During the past two or three days several cases have occurred of young children straying
from home or neglecting to return from their playing on the Heath. In all these cases
the children were too young to give any properly intelligible account of themselves, but
the consensus of their excuses is that they had been with a 'bloofer lady.'. . Some of
the children, indeed all who have been missed at night, have been slightly torn or
wounded in the throat (229).
The newspaper article indicates that the first cases of missing children were reported
around September 22nd or 23rd. The reader can infer that the 'bloofer lady' is Lucy
Westenra, and this would mean that she rose three days after death. This is a perversion
of the Christian Resurrection, and it reminds the reader of the evil from the East that
is spreading westward into modern civilization.
The modern, civilized group of people are the only ones who can stop Dracula from
infecting their society. They all have qualities that show they are participants in the
enlightened modern world. Harker is a rational and well-organized stenographer, Lucy is
an assistant schoolmistress, Seward is a doctor, Morris is from the rapidly growing
United States, and Dr. Van Helsing has an M.D., a Ph.D., and a D. Litt., as well as being
an attorney. All of these civilized characters join together to defeat the demonic
vampire who harks from the primitive lands of the East.
Stoker creates a story that is similar to Le Fanu's Carmilla and other gothic fiction in
that it uses vampires to represent the common fear of race-mixing and the uprising of the
lower classes throughout Europe. While Stoker believes that the best solution to this is
to suppress and destroy the violent and demonic energies that many feel threatened by,
Yeats shows a different philosophy in his works.
On Baile's Strand shows Yeats' opinion that the foreign threats should not be simply
suppressed or killed by modern society. In fact, Yeats feels that modern society has its
flaws and has the potential to cause more tragedy than the threats themselves.
There are two characters in the play who represent conflicting energies. Conchubar is
the wise elder and is considered to be superior to Cuchulain, and he represents
obedience, law and enlightenment. Cuchulain is the ancient war hero who represents the
strong, heroic and violent energies upon which Anglo-Ireland was founded. Cuchulain is a
wild individual who is king over a certain area of land, and Conchubar pays him a visit
to try to convince him to pledge his obedience to his lord and nation. After some time
Cuchulain agrees to recognize Conchubar as his lord and thus subscribes to the rules of
society. One may think that Cuchulain's pledging allegiance to Conchubar would be
beneficial for him and his lord, as explained by Conchubar in his attempt to gain
Cuchulain's allegiance. "Will you be bound into obedience and so make this land safe for
them and theirs? You are but half a king and I but half; I need your might of hand and
burning heart, and you my wisdom" (29). Conchubar's argument sounds reasonable, but as
the reader finds out, Cuchulain's pledge leads him into despair.
Unknown to Cuchulain, he has a son whose mother is Aoife, a fierce warrior and leader of
a rival nation. Aoife has trained her son to kill Cuchulain because she is angry that
the boy's father abandoned them. The Young Man, Cuchulain's son, comes to his father and
challenges him. Cuchulain does not want to battle him, because he feels a bond between
them, as he says, "Put up your sword; I am not mocking you. I'd have you for my friend,
but if it's not because you have a hot heart and a cold eye, I cannot tell the reason"
(34). Despite the Young Man's challenge, Cuchulain wants no part of the challenge, at
least not until the boy is older and has more experience. Conchubar, however, reminds
Cuchulain of his pledge, as he says:
He has come hither not in his own name but in Queen Aoife's, and has challenged us in
challenging the foremost man of us all. . . You think it does not matter, and that a
fancy lighter than the air, a whim of the moment, has more matter in it. For, having
none that shall reign after you, you cannot think as I do, who would leave a throne too
high for insult (35).
Because Conchubar views this challenge as an insult to the kingdom that Cuchulain has
pledged his allegiance to, the heroic warrior is obligated to accept the challenge and
avenge the insult. Even though Cuchulain has a natural bond with this foreigner, he
eventually accepts the challenge and unwittingly kills his son. He soon learns the
identity of the stranger, and as a result he goes insane and drowns while attacking waves
in the ocean. If Cuchulain had not pledged allegiance to the civilized society, he would
have been able to follow his natural energies and feelings, which would have kept him
from murdering his son and going mad. Through this tragedy Yeats states that by
suppressing or killing the natural instead of facing it or even embracing it, one can
indeed become a member of a civilized society, but this is ultimately a tragic condition,
as the Fool observes while describing Cuchulain's death to the Blind Man. "There, he is
down! He is up again. He is going out in the deep water. There is a big wave. It has
gone over him. I cannot see now. He has killed kings and giants, but the waves have
mastered him, the waves have mastered him!" (43).
In The Only Jealousy of Emer, Yeats further expresses his idea that suppressing or
avoiding the demonic is not a way to solve the problems facing Ireland. He feels that
Ireland is trying to lift itself out of its natural form and create an image of itself as
an imaginative modernist society, but doing so will simply delay the inevitable only lead
it into more despair and violence. Only by facing and experiencing the violent and
demonic forces that threaten it can Ireland emerge triumphantly over such challenges.
The play continues from the end of On Baile's Strand, and Cuchulain's body has been
retrieved from the water. His wife Emer and mistress, Eithne Inguba, are sitting at his
bedside. Emer is confronted by the spirit of Bricriu, a demon whom Cuchulain will face
in the afterlife. Bricriu explains that Emer can bring Cuchulain back to life if she
renounces his love forever. At first Emer refuses to do this, but she finally does
renounce his love because she can not bear to let Cuchulain go into the hands of the
demons.
In renouncing his love, Emer loses the only thing she ever had left, the hope of someday
being reunited with her husband. When Cuchulain is revived, he states that Eithne Inguba
is his true love, and Emer's life is filled with nothing but sorrow.
If Cuchulain had faced the demons and suffered their wrath, he would have become a
legend that would live on forever, but instead he is lifted out of the afterlife and
lives with false passion toward Eithne Inguba. Just like this story, Ireland will
likewise lose all hope if it avoids the demonic threats instead of going through and
emerging from them. Even though Cuchulain's life is restored, he will not become the
legend that he could have, and he will have to face the demons eventually, as Bricriu
says to Emer, "He'll never sit beside you at the hearth or make old bones, but die of
wounds and toil on some far shore or mountain, a strange woman beside his mattress"
(119). Yeats is saying that Ireland must eventually face and live through the dark
forces that threaten it, and removing itself from these forces, in addition to simply
delaying the inevitable, will only lead to further tragedy.
The works of these two Irish authors are fine pieces of fiction that effectively employ
the elements of horror and tragedy which are common in gothic literature, but they also
serve as valuable insights into the philosophies that were shared by many Europeans
during these times of anxiety and change. It is difficult to say which philosophy is
superior to the other. Stoker's Dracula was published in 1897, while Yeats' works were
written later, with The Only Jealousy of Emer written in 1919, giving him the advantage
of witnessing the Easter Rising of 1916. The turmoil of the period was not as simple as
modern versus primitive or good versus evil, and certainly not everyone in Europe shared
their views or anything close to them, thus making it virtually impossible to judge the
superiority of one philosophy over another. While readers may not agree with either of
the authors, these works are still entertaining and serve as a testament to the power of
literature as a platform for social and political opinion.
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