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ESSAY SAMPLE ON "OZONE, ACID RAIN AND SOLID WASTE POLLUTION IN NEWFOUNDLAND, CANADA" |
Ozone (O3) is a molecule consisting of three oxygen atoms, similar to the oxygen we
breathe (O2), however oxygen consists of only two oxygen atoms. In the stratosphere, a
region high up in the upper atmosphere, light rays are responsible for the breaking down
of oxygen (O2), breathable oxygen into its two separate oxygen atoms. Lone oxygen atoms
are markedly reactive. When a lone oxygen atom comes into contact with a breathable
oxygen molecule (O2) it combines to form ozone (O3). The ozone layer is a small residual
amount of ozone concentrated in a band in the upper atmosphere. This band of
concentrated ozone resides approximately between twenty and forty kilometers high in the
stratosphere. The ozone layer reactions that both create and destroy ozone has come into
a dynamic equilibrium. This dynamic equilibrium is very delicate and resulted during
atmospheric formation (Environment Canada, 1996).
Ozone, however, is very rare even in the ozone layer. Oxygen makes up approximately
twenty percent of air and ozone makes up only 3 x 10-5 percent of air. Furthermore, this
minuscule amount of ozone is enough to protect the earth from most ultraviolet light.
Ozone prevents most UV-B radiation from reaching the surface of the earth (Environment
Canada, 1996).
Ozone is very important to life on earth because the harmfulness of high-energy UV-B
radiation stems from the high energy of these light rays, enabling them to penetrate
deeply into water, plant tissue and epidermal tissue of animals. Increased UV-B
radiation results in harming the metabolic system of cells and ultimately damage to
genetic material present in effected cells. Living organisms on the surface of the earth
have always been exposed to some, and only slightly differing levels of UV-B radiation
depending of geographic location and season. Through evolution, cellular repair
mechanisms have evolved to safeguard cells against damage done by UV-B radiation. With
the increase in the UV-B radiation, more damage is done to cellular functions then the
natural protection system can deal with (Environment Canada, 1996). Life on earth would
more or less be void if not for the formation of the ozone layer during atmospheric
formation (Porter, 1996). With out the ozone layer the harmful UV-B radiation would not
allow the growth of autotrophic plants, resulting in reduction in oxygen production;
ultimately the destruction of most living organisms on the earth surface would result.
Increased UV-B radiation has been linked to many incidence of increased health problems
among humans. UV-B radiation leads to increase skin cancer, eye damage, and possible
inhibition of the immune system (Health Canada). These incidence have been noticed in
humans, and it is presumed that these problems will occur in other animals as well.
Terrestrial plant life is of great vulnerability to increased UV-B radiation, it can
cause the destruction of chlorophyll in plant leaves resulting is less growth, and
ultimately reduction in crop yields, forest annual increments and a general decline in
forest ecosystem health. The UV-B radiation also causes the potential for the decrease
in the populations of phytoplankton in the world's oceans, causing yet more problems when
one analyzes phytoplankton in the oceans food chain (Clair, 1996).
Humans are responsible for almost all activities and pollutants that deplete the ozone
layer. Humanity has damaged the ozone layer by adding synthetically made molecules
containing both chlorine and/or bromine to the atmosphere. Both chlorine and bromine are
attributed to ozone destruction. The most commonly know group of these are called CFCs,
chlorofluorocarbons. Chlorofluorocarbons are utilized for many industrial and domestic
applications. At the earth surface, these molecules remain stable. However, with their
release into the atmosphere they are subject to global air currents, winds aloft and
atmospheric mixing, causing them to drift up into the stratosphere. Other chemicals
such as halons, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform, also attribute to ozone
depletion. However some naturally found molecules in the stratosphere, such as nitrous
oxide, also a by product of the burning of fossil fuels, attribute to the break down of
ozone (O3). Natural factors include the quasi-biennial oscillation of stratospheric
winds which occurs approximately once every 2.3 years, and the 11 year sunspot cycle.
However the observation of the sunspot cycle reveals that the total global ozone levels
should not decrease more than one to two percent (Environment Canada, 1996).
In the stratosphere such molecules are effected by energetic UV-C radiation. UV-C
radiation breaks down chlorine, freeing an atom of chlorine (Cl). Chlorine atoms will
react with ozone (O3) by splitting of one oxygen atom to form Chlorine oxide (ClO) and
Oxygen (O2). The Chlorine oxide however will again be broken down into Chlorine and a
free oxygen atom to allow the chlorine to continue destroying ozone. One Chlorine atom
(Cl) can destroy ten thousand ozone molecules (Environment Canada, 1996).
With the identification of the human-produced chemicals that have lead to the destruction
of the ozone layer the extent of the threat to stratospheric ozone has been realized.
With the emergence of the scientific evidence on the ozone depletion threat, the
international community agreed to regulate ozone destructive chemicals, and setup a
timetable for their complete phase-out.
The 1987 Montreal Protocol, and subsequent London 1990, and Copenhagen 1992 amendments
was an agreement that stipulated this timetable. The Montreal Protocol was a monumental
achievement in international environmental cooperation and protection. The Protocol
allowed for the refinement of the timetable as the on-going process of scientific
understanding on ozone depletion improved, the phase-outs cloud be expedited. In the
spring of 1989, eighty countries met in Helsinki, Finland to assess new information.
Unanimous agreement to a five point "Helsinki Declaration". The Declaration stipulated
that all countries join both the Vienna convention for the protection of the ozone layer
and the Montreal Protocol, phase out of CFCs by 2000, phase out halons as soon as
feasible, commit to the development of alternative environmentally acceptable chemicals
and technologies, and make information accessible to developing countries. In 1995, over
one hundred and fifty countries had ratified the Montreal Protocol. In compliance,
chlorofluorocarbons, carbon tetrachloride and methyl chloroform production was to be
phased out at the end of 1995; methyl bromide is currently scheduled for United States
phase-out by 2001; and all hydorchlorofluorocarbons will be phased out by 2030
(Environment Canada, 1993).
Environment Canada has implemented a UV index to provide information to the general
public on specific UV hazards daily. Constant monitoring, global awareness and the
eventual phase-out of all ozone depleting substances are all part of Canada's measures
for the protection of the ozone layer. Environment Canada highlights five measures
being taken to control Canada's ozone depleting substances:
?Canada's ozone depleting substance phase-out plan, developed as a result of the Montreal
Protocol, has accomplished many of its goals already.
?Most new cars with air conditioning manufactured in Canada are now fitted with
hydrofluorocarbon air conditioning systems that use HFC-134a (hydrofluorocarbon 134-a).
HCFCs and HFCs have been introduced to replace CFCs. On average, HCFCs have about 5% of
the ozone-depleting potential of CFCs.
?Recovery and recycling regulations for ozone depleting substances (not including methyl
bromide) are in place in 9 out of the 10 provinces, while Newfoundland and Yukon are in
the process of drafting regulations. Guidelines are being prepared in the Northwest
Territories.
?On August 10, 1995, the Zer-O-Zone project was launched at Winnipeg City Hall. The
project, which is an initiative of the Sierra Club, is intended to foster public
awareness of and support for Manitoba's Ozone Protection Regulation.
?Canada has established bilateral agreements for ozone depleting substance technology and
information transfer with China, Brazil and Venezuela.
?A Multilateral Fund has been set up by industrialized countries under the Montreal
Protocol to assist developing countries in the phase-out of controlled substances.
(Environment Canada, 1996)
Acid rain, the widely used term for precipitation acidified by atmospheric pollutants may
be either dry or wet deposition. Acid rain is caused by pollutants such as sulphur
dioxide (SO2 ) and nitrogen oxides (NOx), these pollutants originate from fossil fuel
burning utilities, industrial and automotive sources. In the atmosphere sulphur dioxide
(SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOx) are converted chemically to sulphuric acid and nitric
acid respectively. Diluted forms of these acids fall to the earth surface as rain, hail,
drizzle, freezing rain, snow or fog (wet deposition), they are also deposited as acid gas
or dust (dry deposition). Normal rain (pH 5.6) is slightly acidic, but acid rain can be
as much as 100 times more acidic (Watt, 1987).
With the burning of fossil fuels these chemicals are released into the atmosphere, acidic
pollutants may be transported great distances by the prevailing winds, winds aloft and
weather systems before being deposited. It is estimated that more than 50% of the acid
rain that falls in eastern Canada comes from US. sources (U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency, 1991).
Natural sources of SO2 and NOx do exist. In comparison though more than 90% of the SO2
and NOx emissions occurring in North America are from human activity. In Canada, the
largest sources of SO2 are the smelting or refining of sulphur-bearing metal ores and the
burning of fossil fuels for energy. NOx pollutants are formed during the combustion of
fossil fuels in transportation (responsible for 35% of total emissions), industrial
processes/fuel combustion (23%), power generation (12%) and other sources (30%) (River
Road Environmental Technology Centre, 1991).
Of Canada's total land area, about 4 million km2 or 43% is highly sensitive to acid rain
(Hughs, 1991). With little ability to neutralize acidic pollutants eastern Canada is more
seriously affected by acid deposition. Eastern Canada being composed of thin, coarsely
textured soil (glacial till) and granite bedrock (characteristic of the Canadian Shield)
do not have the buffering ability found in the deeper organic soils of western Canada.
Further, eastern Canada receives more acidic deposition than any other region in Canada.
Acid rain is a less serious problem in western Canada because of lower overall exposure
to acidic pollutants and a generally less acid-sensitive environment. However, the
northern parts of Manitoba and Saskatchewan, along with the north eastern corner of
Alberta remain in the Canadian Shield region, and are more affected by acid deposition.
Acid rain may contribute to declining growth rates and increased death rates in trees.
For example, instances of dieback and deterioration have been noted in white birch in
southeastern New Brunswick caused by acid fog, and acidic cloud precipitation (Hughs,
1991). High levels of acidic deposition result in the acidification of acid-sensitive
lakes, rivers and streams and cause metals to leach from surrounding soils into the water
system. High acidity and elevated levels of metals (notably aluminum) can seriously
impair the ability of water bodies to support aquatic life, resulting in a decline in
species diversity. Lakes and streams in areas that receive high levels of acidic
deposition are currently being monitored to check their acidification status. Over the
past decade, 33% of the monitored Canadian lakes showed evidence of improvement, 11%
continued to acidify and the rest remained unchanged in acidity (Environment Canada,
1996). Aquatic sensitivity, with respect to aquatic sensitivity classes (high, moderate,
low) New Brunswick, Nova Scotia, Prince Edward Island, and Newfoundland are among the top
six provinces with eighty plus percent of their lakes in the moderate to high sensitivity
classes.
Table 1.0
AQUATIC SENSITIVITY, BY PROVINCE
Freshwater Areas in Aquatic Sensitivity
High Mod. Low %High/mod.
British Columbia 32 44 18 73%
Alberta 6 21 70 28%
Saskatchewan 37 3 56 42%
Manitoba 30 2 38 46%
Ontario 34 20 20 73%
Quebec 32 8 7 94%
New Brunswick 31 49 12 87%
Nova Scotia 54 33 19 82%
Prince Edward Island 26 56 <1 99%
Newfoundland 56 30 4 96%
(Union of Concerned Scientists, 1996)
In Newfoundland the lack of water treatment in some rural communities has resulted in an
increase of potable water acidity. With the use of copper piping for water main use in
Newfoundland, acidic water can cause serious problems. The acidity causes the leeching
of the copper away from the water main pipe and into the water system causing increased
copper content in the water as well as problems dealing with water main leaks and
breakage's. The same problem is evident with the use of asbestos cement pipe. However
the leeching of cement away from the pipe allows the release of the asbestos fibers into
the water system. Asbestos is carcinogenic, and therefore this problem arises serious
health concerns. Human exposure to particulate matter, including sulphate and acidic
aerosols, which penetrate deep into the lungs and leads to increased respiratory
problems. Recent research indicates a relationship between decreased lung function,
increased cardio-respiratory mortality and long-term exposure to ambient acidic
aerosols.
SO2 and its by-products have been linked with rates of deterioration in building
materials, such as cement, limestone and sandstone. Some of the Atlantic Province's
significant historic structures (for example, the Basilica, St. John's) are slowly being
eroded by acidic pollutants. A Canadian Acid Rain Control Program was formalized in 1985
by establishing federal-provincial agreements with the seven provinces east of
Saskatchewan. Participating provinces agreed to reduce their combined SO2 emissions to
2.3 million tonnes per year by 1994. This target was exceeded in 1993. Total eastern
Canadian SO2 emissions were 1.7 million tonnes in 1994, representing a 56% reduction from
1980 levels. In 1991, Canada signed an agreement with the United States for the
reduction of SO2 and NOx emissions. Canada's obligations under this agreement include the
establishment of a permanent national limit on SO2 of 3.2 million tonnes by the year 2000
and a 10% reduction in projected NOx emissions from stationary sources by the same year
(NB., NF., NS., Departments of Environment, 1991).
In 1995, Canada began to develop a national strategy dealing with acidic deposition and
acidifying emissions. Furthermore, the formulation of new deposition objectives for
beyond year 2000. The aim is to protect acid-sensitive ecosystems, human health and air
visibility in Canada and ensure the achievement of its international commitments. This
strategy will be considered by federal and provincial/territorial Ministers of Energy and
Environment in 1997 (Ryan, 1996).
The Five major environmental pollution sources in Newfoundland and Labrador are :
? Municipal Sewage
? Vehicle Emissions
? Municipal Solid Waste
? Total Carbon Dioxide (CO2) output
? Primary Natural Resource Processing
? Municipal sewage is a problem affecting all the Atlantic provinces. 150,000 m3 of
untreated sewage is discharged daily in to Halifax harbour (Whelan, 1996). With a common
lack of waste treatment in the Atlantic provinces, except PEI. , actions throughout the
Atlantic Provinces should be taken. The St. John's harbour is a similar situation to the
Halifax harbour. Although St. John's has a smaller population the narrows at the harbour
entrance poses problems as well. The tidal current is impeded by the narrows not
allowing the waste products to be totally removed from the harbour. The rural areas of
Newfoundland although much smaller still remain with no waste treatment facilities.
Sediments are contaminated with organic matter, heavy metals, and organic chemicals such
as PAHs and PCBs (Whelan, 1996). Primary treatment plants should be facilitated in major
population centers around Newfoundland and possible secondary treatment should be
explored as well. Many small rural communities could maintain there present waste
disposal into the Atlantic pending proper environmental study to determine if the area
can handle the small volume of decomposing waste. However, with population increase
sewage treatment plants should be facilitated in these area's, as they should have been
many years ago in St. John's, and other major centers in Newfoundland.
? Vehicle Emissions are not only a Newfoundland problem but a major global problem. The
demand for personal transportation is not likely to change in Newfoundland in the
future, and national trends show an increase in the number of vehicles on the roads in
Canada (Environment Canada, 1996). The main action that must be taken to minimize
vehicle emissions are the adoption of vehicle emissions control program in Newfoundland.
This would cause all vehicles on the road to maintain a minimum standard of fuel emission
production. High occupancy vehicle lanes and other similar incentives could be
implemented. Testing is going on presently in some Canadian cities to encourage
ride-sharing and improving fuel efficiency per passenger-kilometer (Maddocks, 1996).
Ultimately research into alternative fuels, electric vehicles, hydrogen fuel cells, and
radically redesigned light-weight super fuel efficient automobiles suggest that there is
significant potential for improving energy efficiency and reducing vehicle emissions.
Although this last point is a broad scope for the Newfoundland vehicle emission problem,
this problem is global and therefore global cooperation in research is vital to
minimizing this problem.
? Municipal Solid Waste has been on the increase over past decades. In New Brunswick if
trends continue the average waste generated per person will be approximately 550 kg by
1997, up from approximately 350 kg in 1967 (Maddocks, 1996). Solid waste is disposed of
in small dump sites, large landfills and by incineration. In Newfoundland there is a
relatively large number of screened incinerators. However with the global push to lower
atmospheric air pollutants, incineration, although space conducive, also maintains its
problems. All three forms of waste management have there problems. With the formation
of better landfill design and site choice, landfills are becoming better managed and
better contained. In the long term the only way to curb the production in solid wastes
is to bring about a reduction of wastes produced. The use of composting is useful in the
deposing of organic waste, however with regional composting you again run into the
problem of site selection, due to public opposition. The problem of both land and sea
persistent litter is also a problem in Newfoundland. A hazard to both aesthetics and
marine animals (through entanglement and ingestion). A reduction is garbage produced per
person is ultimately the best way to solve the problem. The national Packaging Protocol
calls for a reduction in packaging of 50%, over the 1988 levels, by the year 2000
(Maddocks, 1996). These are the kinds of reduction in produced waste that are beneficial
to solid waste management.
? Total Carbon Dioxide (CO2) output is a combination of home burning of oil and wood for
heating, the refining of the fossil fuels for the use in the heating and powering of
gasoline engines, and the production of electrical power (Maddocks, 1996). Although
Newfoundland power pushes people to use electricity for the use in heat, many people are
still using oil in their homes. Surprisingly enough the oil fuelled furnace is more fuel
efficient then the oil burning electrical power station supplying St. John's with its
electricity (Dawne, 1996). In rural areas of Newfoundland many people are heating their
homes with wood, this has a very high percentage of carbon dioxide for the relative heat
in BTU's. With the extreme need for a good fuel efficient source of heat during the long
Newfoundland winter, it is evident other fuel sources must be explored. With fossil
fuels being the cheapest form of heat, economics will play major role in the choices
available. There is still room, however, for better fuel efficiency and reduced carbon
dioxide emissions. The use of less polluting fuels, such as natural gas should be
examined. The economic benefit of finding a cleaner, and cheaper source of heat is
extremely important. The full range of environmental and economic impacts over its life
cycle (extraction, refinement, and use) needs to be considered, whatever fuel is used.
? Primary Natural Resource Processing can be split into two groups with Pulp and Paper
Mills and Fish and Food Processing Plants, the Newfoundland Department of the Environment
does not include Mining and Smelting in this group of polluters (Whelan, 1996). Pulp and
Paper Mills are responsible for the discharge of effluents containing organic wastes and
suspended solids to fresh and coastal waters. Effluents from the plants in Newfoundland
produce a variety of toxic organo-chlorine compounds, including dioxins and furans. The
formation of organic acids, due to the decomposition of wood, particulate matter also
poses a problem. The volume of wood waste that is dumped into rivers and bays in
Newfounland have caused the formation of toxic carcinogenic fish habitat enviroments
(Whelan, 1996). With new regulatory measures in place the environmental stress on the
water ways will be reduced, however, even though sulphur dioxide air emissions have been
reduced, noxious odours continue to be an aesthetic problem. The technology has come
available in recent years for the use of a closed water system for pulp and paper plants.
This system, however is not widely used because of the setup cost. Closed water systems
would almost entirely eliminate the noxious odour problem and largely decrease the need
to dump effluents into fresh and coastal waters. The technology is available, once again
the problem of the economics behind the production is the main concern. Fish Processing
Plants operating in Newfoundland, however drastically reduced since 1992, primarily
stress the environment by releasing high-strength oxygen-demanding wastes to the coastal
environment. Harmful bacteria in plant effluents, and nuisance odours are also a
potential concern. With the moratorium on the cod fishery in 1992, the closure of many
fish plants was actually a multifaceted benefit to the environment, both to the areas
surrounding the plants and to the cod fishery.
References :
Clair, T. 1996. Personal communication. Atmospheric Environment Service. Newfoundland
Region, St. John's, Newfoundland.
Dawne, L. 1996. Personal communication. Jacques Whitford Environmental Consultants.
St. John's Newfoundland.
Hughs, R.N. 1991. Acid Deposition in New Brunswick 1988-1990. New Brunswick Department
of the Environment. Technical Report T-9001. April 1991.
Maddocks, D. 1996. Personal communication. Newfoundland Environmental Management,
Newfoundland Department of Environment and Lands. Newfoundland Region, St. John's,
Newfoundland.
New Brunswick Department of the Environment. 1991. Report Relating to the Canada/New
Brunswick Agreement Respecting a Sulphur Dioxide Emission Reduction Program for the
Calendar Year 1990. Fredericton, NB. March 1991.
Newfoundland Department of Environment and Lands. 1991. Canada/Newfoundland Agreement
Respecting a Sulphur Dioxide Emission Reduction Program Report. St. John's,
Newfoundland. March 1991.
Nova Scotia Department of the Environment. 1991. Canada/Nova Scotia Acid Rain Reduction
Agreement Report on the Year ending 31 March 1991. Halifax, NS. March 1991.
Porter, K. 1996. Personal communication. Atmospheric Environment Service.
Newfoundland Region, St. John's, Newfoundland.
Power, K. 1996. Personal Communication. Environmental Protection, Environment Canada,
Atlantic Region. St. John's, Newfoundland.
Ryan, P. 1996. Personal communication. Department of Fisheries and Oceans (DFO).
Newfounland Region, St. John's, Newfoundland.
River Road Environmental Technology Centre. March 1991. Update and summary report:
measurement program for toxic air contaminants in Canadian urban air. Environmental
Protection, Environment Canada. Ottawa.
Environment Canada. 1996. State of the Environment Report Overview, August 1996.
Atmospheric Environment Service, Environmental Protection, Ottawa, Canada. 1996.
Environment Canada. 1993. Montreal Protocol with 1990, 1992 Amendments. Atmospheric
Environment Service, Ottawa, 1993.
U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. 1991. National Air Pollutant Emission Estimates
1940-1989. Office of Air Quality, Planning and Standards. EPA-450/4-91-004. March
1991.
Watt, W.D. 1987. A summary of the impact of acid rain on Atlantic salmon (Salmo salar)
in Canada. Water, Air & Soil Pollution. Vol. 35: 27-35.
Whelan, R. 1996. Personal communication. Newfoundland Department of Environment and
Lands. Newfounland Region, St. John's, Newfoundland.
Acknowledgments:
General information and advice provided by the following agencies, in personal
communication or from the world wide web are gratefully acknowledged:
E. I. Du Pont de Nemours, Wilmington, DE
Environment Canada
Environmental Protection Service
National Water Research Insitute
Ontario Ministry of Environment and Energy
Global Resources, Union of Concerned Scientists
Health Canada
Health Protection Branch.
National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA)
Greenbelt, Maryland, USA
National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA)
Climate Monitoring and Diagnostics Laboratory
Boulder, Colorado, USA
United Nations Environment Programme
World Meteorological Organization
Worldwatch Institute
Washington, D. C., USA
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