The Rise of Gladiatorial Combat
Gladiatorial contests (munera gladitoria), hold a central place in our perception of
Roman behavior. They were also a big influence on how Romans themselves ordered their
lives. Attending the games was one of the practices that went with being a Roman. The
Etruscans who introduced this type of contest in the sixth century BC, are credited with
its development but its the Romans who made it famous. A surviving feature of the Roman
games was when a gladiator fell he was hauled out of the arena by a slave dressed as the
Etruscan death-demon Charun. The slave would carry a hammer which was the demon's
attribute. Moreover, the Latin term for a trainer-manager of gladiators (lanista), was
believed to be an Etruscan word. (4:50) Gladiators of Ancient Rome lived their lives to
the absolute fullest.
Gladiatorial duels had originated from funeral games given in order to satisfy the dead
man's need for blood, and for centuries their principle occasions were funerals. The
first gladiatorial combats therefore, took place at the graves of those being honored,
but once they became public spectacles they moved into amphitheaters. (2:83) As for the
gladiators themselves, an aura of religious sacrifice continued to hang about their
combats. Obviously most spectators just enjoyed the massacre without any remorseful
reflections. Even ancient writers felt no pity, they were aware that gladiators had
originated from these holocausts in honor of the dead. What was offered to appease the
dead was counted as a funeral rite. It is called munus (a service) from being a service
due. The ancients thought that by this sort of spectacle they rendered a service to the
dead, after they had made it a more cultured form of cruelty. The belief was that the
souls of the dead are appeased with human blood, they use to sacrifice captives or slaves
of poor quality at funerals. Afterwards it seemed good to obscure their impiety by
making it a pleasure. (6:170) So after the acquired person had been trained to fight as
best they can, their training was to learn to be killed! For such reasons gladiators
were sometimes known as bustuarii or funeral men. Throughout many centuries of Roman
history, these commemorations of the dead were still among the principle occasions for
such combats. Men writing their wills often made provisions for gladiatorial duels in
connection with their funerals. Early in the first century AD, the people of Pollentia
forcibly prevented the burial of an official, until his heirs had been compelled to
provide money for a gladiators' show. (1:174)
It was in Campania and Lucania that the gladiatorial games came to their full
development and took on their classical form. In these new surroundings they took root
and flourished, as can be seen in fourth century BC, tomb paintings. These pictures
show helmeted gladiators carrying shields and lances, covered with wounds and dripping
with blood. (2:84) For Rome a decisive moment in gladiatorial history was reached in 246
BC, the year when the first Punic War began. At the funeral of Brutus Pera, his two sons
for the first time exhibited, in the cattle market, three simultaneous gladiatorial
combats. By 216 BC the number of fights given on a single occasion had risen to twenty
two.(14:16) In 105 BC the two consuls of the year made gladiatorial games official.
There were no doubts of religious tendency, but the purpose of Roman spectacles, were a
public display of power, that power was primarily military, and also to compensate the
soft Greek culture which now was abroad. (8:98)
The Gladiators
Those compelled to fight gladiator duels included prisoners of war, slaves and
condemned criminals. Among them were numerous followers of the new Christian faith.
During this time persecution fell heavily on their faith, many won immortal fame as
martyrs. Fighting in the arena was one of the sentences earned by the sacrilege accused
against members of the Christian religion because of their refusal to sacrifice to the
emperor. It was written that these Christians were forced, as gladiatorial novices to
run the gauntlet. At other times they were thrown to the wild beasts. Criminals that
were used had committed crimes that carried a death sentence or harsh manual labor.
The crimes which led to the arena were murder, treason, robbery and arson. Criminals
sentenced to forced labor were often obliged to serve as gladiators, and were sentenced
to three years of combat and two years in the schools. Sometimes penalties were
differentiated according to social class, thus for certain crimes which in the case of
slaves would involve execution, free men or freedmen (ex-slaves) were condemned to fight
in the arena instead. This did not of course make them gladiators, unless they were
trained first, as those required to provide this sort of sport not always were. And
indeed as gladiators became more expensive in the second century AD the use of untrained
criminals in the amphitheater increased.(7:537) Most gladiators, at Rome and elsewhere
were slaves, but in addition there were always some free men who became gladiators
because they wanted to. The profession was an alternative to being a social outcast.
They were generally derived from the lowest ranking category of free persons, namely the
freedman who had themselves been slaves or were the son of slaves. Free fighters were
more sought after than slaves, presumably because they shower greater enthusiasm in the
arena. Such a volunteer was offered a bonus if he survived the term of his contract,
yet he still had to swear the terrible oath of submission to be burnt with fire, shackled
with chains, whipped with rods and killed with steel like the rest of the gladiators.
For the period of his engagement, he had become no more than a slave. (7:539)
Majestic Exhibitions and Schools
There seemed no end to public entertainment's of one sort or another at Rome. First
there were the regular functions. The number of days in each year given up to annual
games and spectacles of one sort or another in the city was startlingly large, and
increased continually. Already 66 in the time of Augustus, it had risen to 135 under
Marcus Aurelius, and 175 or more in the fourth century. Gladiatorial amusement had
become an essential feature of the services a ruler had to provide, in order to maintain
his popularity and his job. Emperors themselves had to attend the shows. Emperors
watching the shows were distinct, vulnerable, and subject to public pressures which could
not be displayed elsewhere. That was why the games were not popular with a few rulers
such as Marcus Aurelius. He directed that if a gladiator was freed as a result of
popular outcry in the amphitheater the liberation was to be annulled. Aurelius found the
sport boring and indeed he was unenthusiastic about Roman entertainment in general.
(10:87)
The teaching of gladiators was highly elaborate affair involving expertise appreciated
by those members of the public who attended the games for something more than blood and
thrills. Gladiators were trained at gladiator schools established during the late
Republic at the time of Sulla 138-78 BC. (2:86) Novices practiced with wooden swords on
a man of straw or a wooden post. The weapons used in more adept practice were heavier
than those used in the arena. Discipline was severe, with ruthless punishments. The
barracks they lived in were so low inmates could only sit or lie.(3:68) Breaking any
rules was not tolerated and resulted in strict reprimanding: shackles, flogging or even
death. (2:86) The main objective of the schools were to produce the best possible
fighters for the arena, thus scrupulous attention was invested in gladiator health.
Their schools were situated in favorable climates, and equipped with first class doctors.
The schools were also provided with resident medical consultants to check the men's diet.
Gladiators were called hordearii, barley men, because of the amount of barley that they
ate, a muscle building food. (12:111)
The Types of Gladiators
From Republican times onward, foreign prisoners were made to fight with their own
weapons and in their own styles. Many of these men, were merely prisoners herded into
the arena, but various classes of professional gladiators likewise came from this
category. Such, for example was the origin of the gladiators known as the Samnites.
Generally regarded as the prototypes of all Rome's gladiators, they are said to have come
into existence after its Samnite enemies introduced a splendid new type of military
equipment in 310 BC. Gladiators were ranked in different categories according to their
fighting style and the type of weapon they used. These Samnites wore the heavy,
magnificent armor of soldiers. It included a large shield (scutum), a leather or partly
metal greave (ocrea) on the left leg, and a visored helmet (galea) with huge crests and
plumes. To these were added sword (gladius) or lance (hasta), and the sleeve on the
right arm which was part of a gladiators general equipment.(11:121) Sectores were armed
with a sword and mace loaded with lead. Thraces carried a curved scimitar of varying
shape, and a small square or round shield. Myrmilliones ('Guals') carried a shield and a
short scythe and wore a distinctive fish ornament on their helmets. The Retiarii were
exceptionally uncovered, except sometimes for a head band. They carried a trident in one
hand and a net in the other. Because the throwing of a net as a method of combat, was
second rate the Retarii were inferior in status to the ranks, and thus had the worst
living quarters. (2:86) The Myrmillo could fight against the Thracian or against the
Retiarius or net fighter. But the principle opponent of the Retiarius was the
Secutor.(12:109)
The Procedure of the Arena
Gladiatorial shows were intensively promoted and advertised to raise public attention.
Descriptions of upcoming contests, appeared on walls and on the grave stones beside main
roads. The opening ceremonies began the day before the fights. It was then that the
supporter of the show donated a splendid feast to the contestants about to appear on the
following day. The proceedings of the murderous day began with a chariot drive and
parade. Led and presented by the sponsor of the games. The gladiators displayed
themselves in uniforms topped by cloaks dyed purple with gold embroidery. Climbing down
their chariots, they marched around the arena, followed by slaves carrying their arms and
armor. Gladiators, especially those who belonged to the emperor's own troop, were often
finely equipped. When the combatants arrived opposite the emperor's platform, they
extended their right hands towards him and cried 'Hail, emperor, greetings from men about
to die!' (Ave, imperator, morituri te salutant!) (7:538)
The games often opened with a convicted criminal being thrown to a lion. The criminal
was given a small sword, and if he could kill the lion his life was spared. Another way
in which they opened the games was to tie the criminal to a pillar and lower him into a
pit of hungry beasts. After these morbid killings took place, the animal events would
take center stage. The most common of these fights would be a lion against bear. To
make the beast ready for fighting they would starved the animals and poked them with
sticks while in the cage.(5:17) These events were followed by a break, during this break
Gladiatores Meridiane took place. This event consisted of a fully armed gladiator
against an unarmed man. The object was simple, to kill your opponent, the winner went on
to fight the next combatant. The overall winner was the person that was standing in the
end.(2:88) The afternoon brought about the beginning of the gladiatorial events. Staged
with a dramatic sense of climax, the afternoon started with second rate displays that
were bloodless. These mock fighters were called paegniarii.(1:176) After these mock
battles came the real fights, the tamest of these would be the hand to hand combats with
one opponent. However, most of the contests were worst, ranging from armed fighters
against unarmed, two criminals versus a gladiator, and even a group of gladiators versus
another group.
While the fighters were at grips, their trainers (lanista) stood beside them and hounded
them on much like a modern boxers trainer would. Meanwhile the crowd shouted commands of
their own including beat, kill and burn. When a man fell, the herald raised their
trumpets, and spectators yelled 'Got him! He's had it!' (habet, hoc habet). The fallen
fighter if he was in a state to move, laid down his shield, and raised one finger of his
left hand for mercy. The decision whether his life should be spared, rested with the
provider of the games, but he generally let the crowd make the decision. Thumbs up, and
a waving of handkerchiefs, meant his life would be spared, thumbs down and he would be
killed without hesitation. While African boys raked over the bloodstained sand, fallen
gladiators were taken away. A Charon would verify the gladiators death and finish him
off it was necessary. The costumes of the Charon were designed to look like Mercury,
divine guide of dead men's souls to the infernal regions.(10:167)
If a fighter's performance had not given satisfaction, or if he was a criminal whose
survival was not desired, his life was sometimes risked again on the same day by orders
for a repeat performance, against specially introduced understudies. When neither party
won and both were spared, each was described as stans missus, and such a result was often
recorded on inscriptions. The victorious gladiators were presented with palm branches as
a prize, and in Greek lands of the Empire they were given a wreath or crown in addition
or instead. Both palms and crowns are often shown on funeral monuments. The giver of
the games also provided prize money, according to scales stipulated in the gladiators'
contracts. (10:169)
The Arenas
In early times gladiators' duels took place in whatever public places a town might
posses. But then , under the emperors, the characteristic place for such a contest was
the amphitheater. This was an oval auditorium surrounded by rows of seats facing on to
the arena, as in modern bull rings, absorbing the blood of slaughtered men and beasts.
The first permanent amphitheater known to us is not in Rome but in Campania, the country
which inherited the gladiatorial games from Eturia and passed them on to the Romans.
(13:225) The largest and most famous of all such buildings was initiated by the Flavian
dynasty. Opened by Titus in AD 80, this Colosseum is one of the most marvelous buildings
in the world. Its massive overall measurements are 187 by 155 meters, of which the space
for the arena itself comprises 86 by 54 meters. There was accommodation for perhaps
45,000 sitting spectators and at least 5,000 more willing to stand. Underneath the arena
is a labyrinth of passages for stage effects, pens for wild beasts, storage rooms and the
mechanism by which scenery and other apparatus were hoisted into the arena. The
emperor's platform was at the center of one of the long sides, facing across to the
portion of the auditorium reserved for magistrates and the holder of the games. There
were also places for priests, who also attended these bloodthirsty sports. (13:227) The
formula of the collosseum helped to mold renaissance styles. In the eight century they
said that:
As long as it stands,
Rome will stand;
when it falls, Rome will fall;
when Rome falls, the world will fall
The colosseum has often been raided, but has never fallen. It has been made to serve
many purposes, many of which are ironic. These have included sacred occasions, church
services, and plays. Thus through all the depredation the colosseum has faced over the
years inside and outside of the arena, this indestructible building still towers over the
city today. (13:230)
The Gladiator in Society
The reputation of gladiators in the eyes of the public was curiously mixed. For one
thing they were feared. Society was never able to forget for very long that the
gladiators were a potential danger to society. So, of course were the masses of slaves
in general, and that is why their crimes were so savagely punished, if one slaved
murdered his master, the whole household had to die. But by training the gladiators they
spared the rest of the slaves family, and forced him to fight for his life in front of
the community he violated. Moreover their legal and moral position in the community was
one of complete shame. When a gladiator was killed, his corpse was not permitted
honorable to be buried, unless it was claimed by his family or a friend. (9:91)
However there is ample proof of the admiration and indeed excitement that the gladiators
aroused. Gladiators became so ingrained in the Roman mind and soul that they believed in
superstitions that resulted from munera. It was believed that the warm blood of a
slaughtered gladiator would cure epilepsy. When newly married women, parted their hair
with a gladiators spear, it brought good luck if this had belonged to a man mortally
wounded in the arena. (8:276) Gladiators were also seen highly upon by women, graffiti
at the Pompeii amphitheater reveal that members of the profession were loved with the
passionate infatuation which teenage females have for pop singers today. Although
gladiators lived relatively short lives it was possible to win liberation and retire on
receipt of the symbolical wooden sword (rudis). It was also noted that some
ex-gladiators moved upwards into respectable smart circles of local bourgeoisie's (9:96)
Opposition and Abolition
It was probably assumed that the munera would go on forever, and that nothing would stop
their growth. With the rise of Christianity a religious presence lingered about such
contests once again. The Roman ruling classes began to view these contest with a
favorable eye. The excuse of encouragement to warlike toughness continued to be put
forward until the eve of the Middle Ages, although it started to become lame and
inhumane. Another purpose present in the minds of Rome's rulers was the desire that
potentially unruly and dangerous city population should be amused and kept quiet. They
should be given entertainment that they wanted, no matter how disgusting if might be.
The games gradually lost its original intentions and connections to the earlier funeral
games. Once defenseless human beings are thrown to wild animals, the original purpose
is lost, the purpose now is blood-thirsty spectators viewing inhumane, unjust executions.
(2:87) The new religion however ended them for good. With the rise of emperor
Constantine and Christianity came the fall of the gladiatorial spectacles. In AD 326,
Constantine abolished gladiators' games altogether. He also stated that all criminals
who would have in the past have been enrolled for the
games must in the future be condemned to forced labor in the mines instead. By the end
of the fourth century, gladiatorial shows had disappeared from the Eastern Empire.
(2:87)
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